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Neo-Confucianism, which had a profound influence on the Joseon dynasty (1392-1897), established a rigid patriarchal social order and severely restricted the role of women. Society imposed strict rules on marriage, chastity andinheritance, confining them mainly to the domestic sphere. Yet behind this apparent uniformity, reality revealed a more nuanced situation. Some women enjoyed influential status, while others circumvented the restrictions imposed by social norms. This article explores the impact of Confucianism on the status of women under Joseon, highlighting both the constraints and the room for manoeuvre of women in this patriarchal society.
1. Confucianism and the imposition of a patriarchal model
With the advent of the Joseon dynasty in 1392, sadaebu (사대부) scholars attributed the fall of the previous dynasty, Goryeo (고려), to a relaxation of public morals. To remedy this, they introduced strict norms, inspired by Neo-Confucianism, aimed at regulating women’s lives according to ideals of virtue and obedience under the Joseon dynasty.
Joseon dynasty laws imposed heavy restrictions on women’s public appearances and movements. The naewoebŏp (내외법), a principle of gender separation, reinforced the distinction between the public sphere, reserved for men, and the domestic sphere, associated with women.
King Sejong (세종), who reigned from 1418 to 1450, tightened these restrictions: he forbade women to attend monasteries, limited their movements and imposed strict dress regulations. Thus, aristocratic women(yangban 양반) had to wear the changot (장옷), while lower-class women (commoners) had to cover their faces with the ssuge chima (쓰개치마), a veil worn in public. These measures were intended to guarantee their chastity and limit their interactions with men.
During the reign of Seongjong (성종) (1469-1494), the Kyŏngguk taejŏn (경국대전), the National Code, included strict laws concerning women’s participation in festivities or traditional rites, imposing severe penalties.
At the same time, the authorities strictly controlled women’seducation , based on neo-Confucian principles. Works such as the Samgang haengsildo (삼강행실도 – Moral Commandments) and the Naehun (내훈 – Education of Noblewomen) taught submission to men, as well as the importance of modesty, neat appearance and domestic skills.
2. Marriage and the role of women in the family under the Joseon dynasty
Families organized marriages under the Joseon dynasty according to family and social considerations, seeking above all to ensure the continuity of the paternal line and to fulfill ancestral rites.
During the reign of Sejong (세종), the king imposed a strict marriage age for women: they had to marry between the ages of 14 and 20. Families who failed to comply risked punishment. This measure was intended to strengthen families’ control over young girls’ destinies.
Legitimate wives and concubines
Under the Joseon dynasty, society classified married women into two categories: legitimate wives(chŏ 조 妻) and concubines (chŏp 첩 妾). It granted legitimate wives a protected social status, while it often marginalized concubines and their children. In the context of monarchy, the concept of the royal concubine was particularly important. The king lived with a royal concubine without being married to her. Her status was inferior to that of the queen, but superior to that of ordinary women. The royal palace recognized the status of royal concubines and considered them members of the royal family.
The evolution of the matrimonial system: from Goryeo to Joseon
Under the Goryeo dynasty, the Namgwiyeogahon (남귀여가혼) system, in which thehusband joined the wife’s house , offered women a degree of autonomy and influence within the household. Under the Joseon dynasty, the authorities replaced this system with Chinyeong (친영 ), which forced women to move in with their husband’s family. This change reinforced patriarchal domination and limited women’sindependence .
Remarriage and widow fidelity
During the reign of King Sejong, the authorities still recognized the right to remarry, but gradually began to restrict it. Later, under King Seongjong, widows were forbidden to remarry, and their descendants were excluded from public office. After the Hideyoshi invasions (1592-1598) and the Manchu invasions (1627-1636), society placed great value on the ideal of the “faithful widow”, leading some women to commit suicide after the death of their husbands.
Divorce and gender inequality
When it came to divorce, women were at a distinct disadvantage. Only the husband or thestate could initiate a separation, often for reasons such asadultery or the absence of a male heir. In the event of adultery, the woman risked social degradation, forced labor or even the death penalty. On the other hand, a husband who killed his wife for infidelity enjoyed judicial clemency, illustrating the flagrant inequality between the sexes in the neo-Confucian-influenced laws of the Joseon period.
3. Inheritance and passing on
In the early Joseon period, inheritance was relatively egalitarian, a vestige of Goryeo traditions that gave daughters a fair share of family property. However, from the 17th century onwards, the rise of patriarchy and the growing influence of the Chinyeong (친영) drastically reduced women’s inheritance rights.
The system changed from equitable distribution to exclusively male inheritance, with the eldest son becoming the sole heir. Daughters were progressively excluded, receiving at best a third of parental assets. Moreover, they were forbidden to take part in ancestral rites, which had previously been shared between the sexes.
This development reflects the consolidation of Confucianism under the Joseon dynasty, when the transmission of heritage and family responsibilities rested exclusively with men.
4. Room for maneuver and bypassing restrictions
Despite the many restrictions imposed by neo-Confucianism on women in Joseon society, some managed to assert themselves and exert significant influence. Within the family, mothers played a crucial role in the upbringing of their children, passing on Confucian values. This position of educator gave them considerable moral authority, especially in aristocratic families (yangban), where they ensured the transmission of traditions and the training of future generations.
Some elite women, thanks to their erudition and influence, distinguished themselves in learned circles, defying conventions that limited women’s access to knowledge. Figures such as Heo Nanseolheon (허난설헌) and Shin Saimdang (신사임당) were particularly noted for their exceptional talents in poetry, painting and calligraphy.
Heo Nanseolheon (1563-1589), a poetess of genius from the Joseon dynasty, also excelled in painting andwriting. Known by her birth name, Heo Chohee, she composed over 200 poems in her short life. Her brother, Heo Gyun, a renowned writer, published her works in a collection that spread to China and Japan, earning her the title of “Joseon’s greatest poetess”.
Shin Saimdang (1504-1551), meanwhile, distinguished herself not only for her artistic talent, but also for her role as mother of the illustrious scholar Yi I (이이). A renowned artist, she excelled in poetry, calligraphy and painting, particularly in works such as Jarido (자리도), Chochungdo (초충도) and Noando (노안도). Thanks to her husband’s support, she was able to fully express her artistic talent. Her works, marked by delicate realism and refined elegance, were particularly prized. In addition to her traditional role as wife and mother, Shin Saimdang succeeded in carving out an independent path for herself, asserting her status in a Confucian society.
Although often confined to domestic roles, women of the Joseon dynasty also played a crucial role in economic activities. Indeed, many women, particularly those from the merchant class, ran businesses and took part in agricultural or craft activities, contributing not only to their families’ economic stability, but also to social autonomy and a gradual redefinition of their status.
This was the case, for example, of Kim Man-deok (김만덕), who became a leading figure in commerce while remaining true to her social commitments: she symbolizes this transformation of the role of women in a Confucian society. Orphaned at an early age, she was raised by a kisaeng, who passed on her art to her. She went on to become one of Jeju‘s most famous entertainers, and then reinvented herself as a businesswoman, defying the restrictive norms of her time that severely limited women in business. By exploiting the rice and salt trade, she introduced innovative methods, including transporting goods by boat rather than by horse, contributing to her rise as an influential entrepreneur.
The Joseon dynasty imposed a strict patriarchal model under the influence of neo-Confucianism, drastically restricting women’s rights and freedoms. However, women were no mere spectators of their own destiny. By playing a central role ineducation, asserting themselves in the arts or finding ways around the restrictions, they helped shape their own place in society. This complexity shows that, although limited by strict norms, Joseon women were never totally deprived of influence or agentivity.
Sources
- Kim, Youngmin, and Michael J. Pettid. Women and Confucianism in Chosŏn Korea: New Perspectives. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2011.
- Yoo, Jaebin. “Feminine Space in Court Paintings of Late Joseon Dynasty.” International Journal of Korean History 6, no. 1 (2004): 113-160.
- Han, Hee-sook. “Women’s Life during the Chosŏn Dynasty.” International Journal of Korean History 6 (2004): 113-160.
- Jungmann, Burglind. “Changing Notions of ‘Feminine Spaces’ in Chosŏn-Dynasty Korea: The Forged Image of Sin Saimdang (1504-1551).” Archives of Asian Art 68, no. 1 (2018): 47-66.
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